United States Body snatching

1 united states

1.1 use in medical schools
1.2 race , body snatching
1.3 public outcry

united states

in united states, body snatchers worked in small groups, scouted , pillaged fresh graves. fresh graves given preference since earth had not yet settled, making digging easier work. removed earth shoveled onto canvas tarp laid grave, nearby grounds undisturbed. digging commenced @ head of grave, clear coffin. remaining earth on coffin provided counterweight snapped partially covered coffin lid (which covered in sacking muffle noise) crowbars or hooks pulled lid free @ head of coffin. usually, body disrobed–the garments thrown coffin before earth put place.

resurrectionists have been known hire women act part of grieving relatives , claim bodies of dead @ poorhouses. women hired attend funerals grieving mourners; purpose ascertain hardships body snatchers may later encounter during disinterment. bribed servants offer body snatchers access dead master or mistress lying in state; removed body replaced weights.

although medical research , education lagged in united states compared medical colleges european counterparts, interest in anatomical dissection grew in united states. philadelphia, baltimore, new york several medical schools, renowned body snatching activity: locales provided plenty of cadavers. finding subjects dissection proved morally troubling students of anatomy. late mid-19th century, john gorham coffin, prominent aptly named professor , medical physician wondered how ethical physician participate in traffic of dead bodies.

charles knowlton (1800–1850) imprisoned 2 months in worcester (massachusetts) county jail illegal dissection in 1824, couple of months after graduating distinction dartmouth medical school. thesis defended dissection on rationalist basis value of art or science should determined tendency has increase happiness, or diminish misery, of mankind. knowlton called doctors relieve public prejudice donating own bodies dissection.

the body of ohio congressman john scott harrison, son of william henry harrison, snatched in 1878 ohio medical college, , discovered son john harrison, brother of president benjamin harrison.

large, gated, centralized cemeteries, employed armed guards, emerged response grave-robbing fears. gated, high-security cemeteries response discovery many old urban , rural burying grounds found practically empty of human contents when downtown areas re-developed , old pioneer cemeteries moved, in indianapolis.

use in medical schools

the demand cadavers human dissection grew medical schools established in united states. between years of 1758 , 1788, 63 of 3500 physicians in colonies had studied abroad, namely @ university of edinburgh medical school. study of anatomy legitimized medical field, setting apart homeopathic , botanical studies. later, in 1847, physicians formed american medical association, in effort differentiate between true science of medicine , assumptions of ignorance , empiricism based on education without experience of human dissection.

in 1762, john morgan , william shippen jr. founded medical department of university of pennsylvania. shippen put advertisement in pennsylvania gazette in november 1762 announcing lectures art of dissecting, injections, etc. cost 5 pistoles. in 1765, house attacked mob, claiming doctor had desecrated church burying ground. doctor denied , made known used bodies of suicides, executed felons, , , 1 potter s field .

in boston, medical students faced similar issues procuring subjects dissection. in biographical notes, john collins warren jr. wrote, no occurrences in course of life have given me more trouble , anxiety procuring of subjects dissection. continues tell of difficulty father john warren had finding subjects during revolutionary war: many soldiers had died without relation. these experiences gave john warren experience needed begin lectures on anatomy in 1781. advertisement in local paper stated following: course of lectures delivered winter upon several branches of physick, improvement of such desirous of obtaining medical knowledge: propose attending, requested make application possible, course commence in few days. dated , signed: boston 01/01/1781 john warren, sec y, medical society.

ebenezer hersey, physician, left harvard college £1,000 creation of professorship in anatomy in 1770. year earlier, john warren , friends had created secret anatomic society. society s purpose participate in anatomic dissection, using cadavers procured. group s name spunkers ; however, speaking or writing name prohibited. group used shovels obtain fresh corpses anatomical study.

harvard medical school established on november 22, 1782; john warren elected professor of anatomy , surgery. when son in college in 1796, peaceful times provided few subjects. john collins warren jr. wrote: having understood man without relations buried in north burying-ground, formed party ... when father came in morning lecture, , found had been engaged in scrape, alarmed.

john warren s quest subjects led him consult colleague, w.e. horner, professor of anatomy @ university of pennsylvania, wrote back: since opening of our lectures, town has been uncommonly healthy, have not been able obtain fourth part of subjects required our dissecting rooms.

warren later enlisted of old family friend, john revere (son of paul revere) procure subjects dissection. revere called upon john godman suggested warren employ services of james henderson, trusty old friend , servant @ time, , number, obtain articles desire.

warren attempted set cadaver provision system in boston, similar systems set in new york , philadelphia. public officials , burial-ground employees routinely bribed entrance potter s field bodies. in new york, bodies divided 2 groupings–one group contained bodies of entitled respect, or called friends; other bodies not exempt exhumation. in philadelphia s 2 public burying grounds, anatomists claimed bodies regularly, without consideration. if schools or physicians differed on should allotment of bodies, dispute settled mayor–a high-reaching conspiracy resulted in harvest of 450 bodies per school year.

race , body snatching

public graveyards not sanctioned social , economic standing, race. new york 15% black in 1780s. bayley s dissecting tables, of columbia college took bodies segregated section of potter s field, negroes burying ground. free blacks slaves buried there. in february 1787, group of free blacks petitioned city s common council medical students, under cover of night...dig bodies of deceased, friends , relatives of petitioners, carry them away without respect age or sex, mangle flesh out of wanton curiosity , expose beasts , birds.

in december 1882, discovered 6 bodies had been disinterred lebanon cemetery , en route jefferson medical college dissection. philadelphia s african-americans outraged, , crowd assembled @ city morgue discovered bodies sent. reportedly, 1 of crowd urged group swear seek revenge participated in desecration of graves. man screamed when discovered body of 29-year-old brother. philadelphia press broke story when teary elderly woman identified husband s body, burial had afforded begging $22 @ wharves had been employed. physician william s. forbes indicted, , case led passage of various anatomical acts.

after public hanging of 39 dakota warriors in aftermath of dakota war of 1862, group of doctors removed bodies under cover of darkness riverside grave, , each took himself. doctor william worrall mayo received body of warrior called cut nose , dissected in presence of other doctors. cleaned , articulated skeleton , kept bones in iron kettle in office. sons received first lessons in osteology skeleton.

public outcry

graves of whites not safe: on february 21, 1788, body of white woman taken trinity church. hundred-dollar reward offered rector of church information leading arrest of grave robbers. in daily advertiser, many editorial letters written incident: 1 such writer named humanio warned lives may forfeit ... should [the body snatchers] persist. there cause concern: body snatching perceived daily occurrence. assuage outraged public, legislation enacted thwart activities of body snatchers; eventually, anatomy acts, such massachusetts anatomy act of 1831, allowed legalization of anatomy studies.

prior these measures allowing more subjects, many tactics employed protect bodies of relatives. police engaged watch burying grounds bribed or made drunk. spring guns set in coffins, , poorer families leave items stone or blade of grass or shell show whether grave tampered or not. in collection of boston police force details, edward savage made notes of reward offer on april 13, 1814: selectmen offer $100 reward arrest of grave-robbers @ south burying-ground . iron fences constructed around many burying grounds deterrent body snatchers. burglar proof grave vaults made of steel sold promise loved ones remains not 1 of 40,000 bodies mutilated every year on dissecting tables in medical colleges in united states. medical appropriation of bodies aroused popular resentment. between 1765 , 1884, there @ least 25 documented crowd actions against american medical schools.

despite these efforts, body snatchers persisted. @ city hospital in new york, on april 13, 1788, group of boys playing near dissection room window peered in. accounts vary, 1 of boys saw thought mother s remains or 1 of students shook dismembered arm @ boys. boy, mother had died, told father of occurrence; father, mason, led group of laborers in attack on hospital, known doctors riot.

in order control destruction of private property, authorities participated in searches of local physicians houses medical students, professors, , stolen corpses. mob satisfied. later, mob reassembled attack jail of medical students being held safety. militia called, few showed; perhaps due militia sharing public s outrage. 1 small troop harassed , withdrew. several prominent citizens–including governor george clinton; general baron von steuben, , john jay–participated in ranks of militia protecting doctors @ jail. 3 rioters killed when embattled militia opened fire on mob, , when militia members countryside joined defense, mob threat dissipated.